The last few years have seen a huge increase in the interest in magic mushrooms, on nearly every course I run I get asked about them or someone slips into the conversation that they are micro dosing. Research by the ONS shows that one in 100 people in England and Wales took hallucinogenic drugs in the last year. The data suggests about 260,000 people aged between 16 and 59 have taken magic mushrooms in the last year, 100,000 more than in 2020. Increasing use by older adults was thought to be behind the rise.

Magic mushrooms variously known as shrooms, mushies, libs or liberty caps, are classed as a class A drug in the UK, which means possession and distribution are criminal offenses regardless of whether the fungus is freshly picked from a field or dried, however as their spores don’t contain psilocybin they can be sold and are available online by mail order, including in grow-your-own packs, and many users harvest them in the wild for their own use. 

The main component of interest is the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring molecule found in over 200 species of fungi. It is structurally similar to serotonin – a human neurotransmitter that has a role in the regulation of mood and perception. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms can be found in the genera Conocybe, Gymnopilus, Panaeolus, Pluteus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia. 

Other ‘trippy’ compounds for example muscarine and ibotenic acid are found in many other species too. And the ergot fungus contains a number of highly poisonous and psychoactive alkaloids, including lysergic acid (LSD).

This article mainly focuses on the Psilocybin-containing species.

The most common species in the UK to contain psilocybin is the Liberty Caps (Psilocybe semilanceata) to read more about this mushroom click here

We do occasional find an non-native species too, The Wavy Cap or BlueLeg Brownie (Psilocybe cyanescens) to read more about this mushroom click here

The Rigveda or Rig Veda is one of the oldest of the books in the world, its composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit and is believed to have been written about 1500 BCE. It has several mentions of a mysterious drink called soma, Scholars have spent much time debating the ingredients to this ritual brew and many believe it was made with mushrooms containing psilocybn. It’s hard to know for certain but one thing is for sure, mushrooms can and have done some strange things to humans dating back thousands of years.

The use of psychoactive mushrooms dates back thousands of years, rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence.  Prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago. Species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.

The common name Liberty cap has quite an interesting story, the original liberty cap was an actual hat, worn by freed slaves in the ancient Roman world to mark their status. After the collapse of the Roman empire the liberty cap was forgotten until around the 16th century, when it began to be used as a political symbol. When William of Orange seized the English throne in 1688 he minted liberty cap coins to commemorate this event.

It again feature in the 1790 French revolution when an armed mob stormed the royal palace and forced Louis XVI to don the liberty cap. Most likely inspired by this, revolutionary groups in America declared their rebellion against British rule by raising a liberty cap upon a pole in the public squares of their towns and in 1781 a medal, designed by Benjamin Franklin to mark the fifth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, depicted Liberty (as in the statue of Liberty the great American symbol of freedom) with wild, free flowing hair, the pole and cap of liberty slung across her shoulder.

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799. A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child “was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him.”

In 1957 an American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina P. Wasson, a physician, studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population in the Mexico. Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these rituals in “Seeking the Magic Mushroom”, an article published in the popular American weekly Life magazine and become a household name almost overnight.

Later in the same year they were accompanied on a follow-up expedition by French mycologist Roger Heim, who identified several of the mushrooms as Psilocybe species. Heim cultivated the mushrooms in France.

Also Inspired by the Wassons’ Life article, Timothy Leary travelled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. The project was highly controversial, probably unethical and almost certainly illegal, as they were pressurising students to take part, but it became the bedrock of the ‘hippie’ movement.

In the 1960’s psychedelics became an important symbol in the counterculture movement in the US and UK leading perhaps to the flower power movement and the release of some of the greatest songs ever.. The growing disillusionment with “the capitalist system” that psychedelics caused led to them being outlawed and mushrooms containing psilocin or psilocybin were brought under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and are designated as Class A drugs.

Maximum penalties are 7 years imprisonment and a fine for possession and life imprisonment and a fine for supply.

In practice, maximum sentences are rarely used.

Not only did the change in legal status bring down their recreational use but it also stopped any related research for many years. But in 2019 the world’s first centre for psychedelic research opened at Imperial College London. The Imperial Centre for Psychedelic Research aims to develop psilocybin therapy into a licensed treatment for depression. It will also investigate their potential for treating other conditions, including anorexia.

Originally led by Dr Robin Carhart-Harris, the Centre will focus on two main research themes: the use of psychedelics in mental health care; and as tools to probe the brain’s basis of consciousness. 

“Psychedelic therapy holds a great deal of promise for treating some very serious mental health conditions and may one day offer new hope to vulnerable people with limited treatment options”

Dr Robin Carhart-Harris-Head of the Centre for Psychedelic Research, Imperial College London

And there is growing evidence that it works, many more trials are needed but the initial results are promising 

• In 2014, a small randomised controlled trial in Switzerland suggested LSD-assisted psychotherapy had the potential to reduce the anxiety associated with terminal illness. Twelve participants with life-threatening illness were enrolled in the study to receive treatment that involved drug-free psychotherapy sessions supplemented with two LSD-assisted sessions two to three weeks apart. At two months’ follow-up, the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (a commonly used inventory to measure trait and state anxiety) showed non-significant reductions in trait anxiety, but significant reductions in state anxiety. Follow-up with nine participants one year after treatment showed a sustained therapeutic benefit with no acute or chronic drug-related severe adverse events, and there were no adverse effects lasting more than one day after an LSD-assisted session.
• A 2008 study on end-of-life anxiety focused on 12 participants with end-stage cancer. After several non–drug-assisted therapy sessions, participants underwent a crossover study in which they received a dose of psilocybin across two sessions a few weeks apart. Findings showed that psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy lowered anxiety and improved mood, without clinically significant adverse effects.
• A 2015 study of treatment for tobacco dependence, involved 15 participants who smoked at least 10 cigarettes per day and had multiple previous unsuccessful cessation attempts. Participants received cognitive behavioural therapy before and after treatment with psilocybin. Treatment included two or three psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy sessions. At six months’ follow-up, 12 of the 15 participants were abstinent.

  

A cross-party group of MPs and eminent scholars has recommended that the government downgrades the class A psychedelic drugs from Schedule 1 to Schedule 2. This is currently being debated. Some of the main points raised are:

• Poor mental health is the single largest cause of disability in the UK, currently costing the UK economy an estimated £105 billion per year, predominantly due to losses in productivity.
• Psilocybin-assisted therapy for severe depression has shown long-term efficacy of more than 70%.
• Early clinical trials have shown psilocybin to be a safe and effective treatment for several mental health issues, including substance misuse, trauma, and depression.
• Currently UK drug control laws are unnecessarily restricting research in this area. This applies to patient treatment and drug development as well as basic and applied research into the mechanisms of these compounds.

I really don’t want this article to come across that I’m encouraging people to break the law at all but I think we just need to have a bit more of a grown up conversation about their use. We need to treat recreational use differently than medical usage. We don’t for example treat a junkie the same as someone facing end of life care when in fact they both use the same substances. 

If for example magic mushroom were made legal yes recreational use would more than likely increase and some harm would perhaps result from this but its not as though legal drugs and medications are completely safe either, think of the damage caused by smoking tobacco or the fact that in the USA more than 100,000 people are killed from properly prescribed medications each year and deaths from medications are now the 4th leading cause of death.

In 2023 Australia became the first country in the world to legalise the use of psychedelics to treat some mental health conditions. Approved psychiatrists can now prescribe magic mushrooms for some types of depression. The move has been hailed as a game-changer by many scientists and mental health experts and I’d imagine in the coming years more and more countries will join them.

References and further reading:

https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/dec/14/magic-mushroom-use-grows-in-england-and-wales-ons-figures-show

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4592297/]

https://www.nbihealth.com/death-by-prescription-and-what-you-can-do-about-it/

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-66072427

https://theconversation.com/liberty-cap-the-surprising-tale-of-how-europes-magic-mushroom-got-its-name-130668

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Cardboard is a vital packaging material and it has long been an integral part of our lives, in all honesty up until writing this article it wasn’t something I really thought too much about. I do try to live as ‘green’ a lifestyle as I can with two young children and I sort of assumed that as it’s not made of plastic, it’s a natural product, and as long as the trees are being replanted it’s OK. However, the environmental implications of its production, use, and disposal are making me rethink this seemingly harmless material.

Cardboard production relies on the extraction of raw materials, primarily wood pulp from trees. This can lead to deforestation and habitat destruction, impacting ecosystems and biodiversity. Also the excessive or unsustainable harvesting of trees can result in soil erosion, loss of wildlife habitat, and disruptions to water cycles, contributing to environmental degradation.

The process of turning wood into pulp for cardboard production often involves the use of chemicals such as bleaching agents and additives. These chemicals can have negative environmental consequences.

Chemical runoff from manufacturing facilities may contaminate water sources, harming aquatic ecosystems and potentially posing risks to human health.

Despite being recyclable, not all cardboard is recycled. Improper disposal and lack of recycling facilities can result in significant amounts of cardboard ending up in landfills.

Cardboard in landfills contributes to waste accumulation and the release of methane gas, a potent greenhouse gas. This can contribute to climate change and environmental pollution.

While cardboard is biodegradable, the process can take a considerable amount of time, especially in landfills where conditions may not be optimal for rapid decomposition.

This slow decomposition of cardboard waste in landfills is taking up valuable space and delaying the return of nutrients to the environment

The transportation of raw materials to manufacturing facilities and the distribution of finished cardboard products involve energy consumption and emissions.

The carbon footprint associated with transportation contributes to air pollution and climate change. Long-distance transportation can exacerbate these environmental effects.

The carbon footprint of 1 kilogram of cardboard is 0.94kg of carbon emissions.

But thankfully there are now alternatives, one of them being packaging made from fungi, often referred to as mycelium packaging or fungal packaging. It is an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to traditional packaging materials. 

Mycelium’s unique ability to grow on agricultural waste, such as straw or corn stalks, forms the foundation of this eco-friendly solution. This natural bonding process eliminates the need for synthetic adhesives, aligning with a more sustainable and resource-efficient production cycle.

As mycelium grows, it forms a flexible material within moulds, resembling traditional cardboard in structure. The versatility of this moulding process allows for customised packaging designs and due to the myceliums rapid growth production cycles can also be sped up. 

As well as these benefits, mycelium packaging is biodegradable. At the end of its life cycle, it can be quickly and safely composted, offering a closed-loop solution that contrasts with traditional cardboard’s slow decomposition.

Steps to make mycelium packaging 

•   Mycelium Growth: Mycelium, the root-like network of fungi, can be cultivated on agricultural waste or other organic substrates.
•   Mold Formation: When mycelium grows and forms a dense mass, it can be moulded into specific shapes and structures.
•  Substrate Selection: Agricultural by-products such as corn stalks, husks, or sawdust are often used as substrates.
•  Inoculation: Mycelium spores or culture are introduced to the substrate to initiate growth.
•  Mold Growth: The mycelium colonises the substrate, forming a solid and cohesive structure.
•  Harvesting: Once the mycelium has fully grown and formed a solid mass, it is harvested.
•  Dehydration and Sterilisation: The harvested mycelium is subjected to processes like dehydration and sterilisation to enhance durability, prevent further fungal growth, and create a stable material for packaging.
• 

   

So What are the Advantages of Fungal Packaging

Fungal packaging is cultivated using waste products and is 100% biodegradable, offering a sustainable solution to the environmental issues associated with traditional packaging materials. The mycelium growth process allows for customisation of shapes and sizes, making it versatile for various applications and it has good insulating properties, providing protection for fragile items.

It is produced using renewable resources much of which is waste product and has a lower environmental impact compared to conventional packaging materials. The cultivation of mycelium has a relatively low carbon footprint compared to the production of plastics. Research suggests that it uses up to 90% less. Mycelium can be grown on waste materials, creating a closed-loop system that re-purposes agricultural by-products.

At the moment fungal packaging is more expensive than traditionally cardboard so its use is limited to more expensive, less mass produced products including electronics, cosmetics, and consumer goods. But as research and development continues its expected that these costs will come down greatly allowing it to be more widely adopted.

Looking ahead, mycelium-based packaging holds some really exciting possibilities for a more sustainable and eco-friendly future. 

Imagine a world where everyday items are crafted from mycelium, harnessing its unique properties. Picture collaborations between mycologists, biotech firms and other industries, working together to refine production processes and exploring novel applications. As technology advances, mycelium materials could become even stronger, more flexible, and better suited for other applications.This collaboration could extend mycelium’s reach beyond traditional packaging, finding its way into unexpected sectors like healthcare, electronics, and automotive.

The beauty of mycelium lies in its ability to take on different shapes, providing a blank canvas. In the future, we might see packaging designed not just for functionality but as a uniquely crafted product, reflecting the values of brands and consumers alike.

As consumer awareness grows, partly fuelled by a desire for more eco-friendly choices, businesses could move towards mycelium-based solutions. This shift might not only be driven by corporate social responsibility but also by the genuine commitment of companies to meet the evolving demands of an environmentally conscious market.

Government support and policies favouring sustainable practices could also play a huge role in encouraging businesses to adopt mycelium-based alternatives, creating an environment where sustainability is not just a choice but  standard practice.

On a global scale, imagine mycelium production factories popping up in local communities, not only reducing the associated transportation costs but also creating new jobs and contributing to the accessibility and affordability of these sustainable materials. 

It’s a future where mycelium isn’t confined to niche markets or old men in  laboratories but becomes an integral part of mainstream culture, making a meaningful impact on reducing waste and promoting a circular economy.

In my vision, mycelium-based materials become a symbol of our collective commitment to a more harmonious relationship with the environment, leading to a better, more self-sustaining future for us all.

“We’re still very much in kindergarten when it comes to understanding how to cocreate a sustainable future for all beings—and all beings are necessary to make that future possible.” ― Paul Stamets, Fantastic Fungi: How Mushrooms Can Heal, Shift Consciousness, and Save the Planet

References:

https://www.teorra.info/blog/what-is-the-carbon-footprint-of-packaging#:~:text=Cardboard%20%26%20Paper%3A%200.94kg%20carbon,emissions%20per%201kg%20of%20packaging

https://wildsmithskin.com/blogs/wildsmith-journal/what-is-mycelium-packaging

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Water Pepper is a plant of the Knotweed or Polygonaceae family, that was previously cultivated as a pepper alternative, it doesn’t strike you as anything speicifcally special to look at as it’s just growing in the water, but when you grab and taste a leaf it’s a revelation!

I must admit for the first couple of seconds for someone picking this for the first time, because of the strong spicy peppery flavour they often think they’ve picked something toxic, but with confident identification that goes away and this becomes a beautiful regular plant to gather!

Common Names

Smartweed, Marshpepper, Arse-Smart 

Botanical Name

Persicaria hydropiper

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom: Plantae

– Order: Caryophyllales

– Family: Polygonaceae

Physical Characteristics of Water Pepper

Leaves

Narrow lanceolate leaves with a slight wave that grow alternately up the stem. The leaves have very fine hairs along the margin.

Flowers

Water Pepper will flower from July to September. The buds will be green and then maturing into clusters of small pink flowers on drooping spikes.

Habitat

Damp meadows, shallow water, edges of streams (anywhere wet and damp).

Known Hazards

Although rare some people report of skin irritation from the oils produced from water pepper.

As Water Pepper grows in and around water it is important to cook the leaves due to water-borne diseases such a liver fluke.

Could be Confused with…

It can be hard to tell the difference between many of the Persicaria genus but there are no toxic or dangerous lookalikes. Redshank (Persicaria maculosa) will be found in much drier environments and the flowers don’t droop in the same manner.

You may also come across Tasteless Water Pepper which doesn’t have the strong, pungent taste of Water Pepper.

Potentially the very young rosebay willowherb as the leaves are a similar shape, this plant is also edible and is very very mildly peppery.

Edible Uses of Water Pepper

The name Water Pepper comes from the strong and hot, acrid flavour of the plant. You can use the leaves and shoots in your cooking.

The leaf has been traditionally used in Japan and South East Asia where it was used as a garnish alongside sushi because of its wasabi like heat. There is also a sauce known as tade-su or tade-zu which is made by pureeing the leaves and adding rice vinegar, mirin and pounded rice. This pungent flavour is from bicyclic sesquiterpenoid known as polygodial and won’t linger on your palate as long as say a hot chilli pepper.

Extra notes from the Foragers

There isn’t much information on the medicinal uses of Water Pepper but there is some research into the potential of the plant being a fungicide. You can also make a yellow dye from the stems.

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Field bindweed is a persistent and troublesome perennial weed, much hated by gardeners. Its is a toxic plant in the Morning Glory family, it’s generally 20–100 cm tall and it trails or climbs up other plants. 

Common Names

Meadow Bindweed, Creeping Jenny, Perennial Morning glory, Small-flowered Morning glory

Botanical Name

Convolvulus arvensis

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom: Plantae

– Order: Solanales 

– Family: Convolvulaceae

Physical Characteristics if Field Bindweed

Leaves

The grey-green heart-shaped leaves are rounded at the tip and the plant twines to the left, anti-clockwise.

Flowers

Its funnel-shaped flowers may be pink, white, or pink-and-white striped, and are sweet-scented, unlike the larger kinds of bindweed. The flowers are , 1–2.5 cm in diameter and about 2-3 cm long.

Habitat

Field bindweed is found in a wide variety of lowland habitats including verges, waste tips, and disturbed and arable ground.

It likes dry, warm, nutrient-rich deep and loose loams.

Known Hazards

It is mildly toxic, causing gastrointestinal symptoms.

The alkaloids contained within the plant are reported to give the plant psychoactive properties.

Could be Confused with…

Field bindweed may be confused with black bindweed as young plants. Size is a good indicator, as Black Bindweed is much larger.

The main difference is in the cotyledons*; black bindweed has long cotyledons with short stalks, while field bindweed has oval cotyledons, notched at the tip.

Common sorrel has similarly shaped leaves but Sorrel grows in a rosette rather than as a vine and sorrel flowers look very different.

*A cotyledon is part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Often when the seed germinates the cotyledon may become the first leaves of the seedling. Botanists use the number of cotyledons present in the seed of a plant as a means of classification.

Edible Uses

Although there are references to it being eaten in the past, Bindweed contains several alkaloids which are toxic for mice, including pseudotropine, and lesser amounts of tropine, tropinone, and meso-cuscohygrine. 

We therefore do not consider it edible!

Notes on Herbal Uses

Its leaves contain glycosides and have been traditionally used to treat hypertension and as a laxative and diuretic.

Extra notes from the Foragers

Although a troublesome weed for gardeners, bindweed flowers do provide pollen for bees and the leaves are a source of food for the larvae of convolvulus hawk moths.

References:

Find the distribution for this species

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Red Campion is a  common, native wildflower. It is a biennial or short-lived perennial plant that produces beautiful, bright pink flowers, which bloom in spring and early summer.

Common Names

Robin hood, Robin-run-in-the-hedge, Adder’s flower

Botanical Name

Silene dioica 

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom: Plantae

– Order:  Caryophyllales

– Family: Caryophyllaceae

Physical Characteristics of Red Campion

Leaves

Leaves are hairy and oval with a pointed tip. The basal leaves are stalked whilst the upper leaves are stalkless. They grow in opposite pairs and are slightly sticky.

Flowers

The flowers are a bright pink with 5 petals that are deeply notched at the tip producing almost heart shaped petals. The petals narrow towards a calyx at the base. As Red campion is a dioecious the female and male flowers grow on separate plants.

Habitat

It’s generally found in woodlands, shaded hedgerows and prefers rich, damp and non-acidic soils.

Known Hazards

The plant is toxic to livestock, and can cause vomiting and diarrhoea if ingested

Could be Confused with…

Could be confused with White Campion (Silene latifolia) which is mildly toxic as it contains saponins. White and red campion can hybridise which produces Pink Campion. White Campion has white blooms whereas Pink Campion can vary from whiteish to pale pink. The flowers of white and pink are bigger than that of the Red Campion.

A loose potential to be confused with rosebay willowherb purely because the flowers are the same colour, however willowherb grows much much taller.

Edible Uses of Red Campion

The young immature leaves can be wilted down to remove bitterness and used like spinach. You can also add the leaves to soups, salads, stir-fries and stews.

A traditional dish known as pistic from northern Italy uses the leaves from Red Campion.

Flowers were also used to make wine in Britain and you could use them to decorate cakes and desserts.

Notes on Herbal Uses

Plants of the genus Silene have roots that contain the chemical compound saponin, which although a mildly toxic substance has long been used as soap for washing clothes etc. There are also references to Red Campion being used to treat snake bites and as a cure for corns and warts.

Learn more about saponins here

Extra notes from the Foragers

Red campion has connections to the faeries and goblins and it’s believed that the blooms protect the faeries from being discovered. In some parts of Britain it’s believed to be bad luck to pick the flowers.

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There are many species of Elm such as the English Elm (Ulmus procera), Wych Elm (Ulmus glabra) and Field Elm (Ulmus minor). All were sadly affected by the fungal Dutch elm disease which came to the UK in the 1960’s and devastated populations of these majestic trees. Some species will grow to almost 40m and often with a forked trunk and very rough, fissured bark.

Common Names

English Elm, Wych Elm, Field Elm

Botanical Name

Ulmas sp.

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom: Plantae

– Order: Rosales

– Family: Ulmaceae

Physical Characteristics of Elm

Leaves

The leaves are often rounded and oval, hairy and have a toothed margin. Many elms have a distinguishing feature on the leaves whereby at the base it is asymmetrical.

Flowers

The flowers will appear in the late winter/early spring between February and March. Being hermaphrodites the flowers contain both male and female reproductive parts. Hanging down like tassels, the flowers are a deep red/pink. The flowers are pollinated by the wind.

Fruit

After flowering the fruits will appear and are known as samaras. They are flat, papery and winged with the seed nestled in the centre.

Habitat

Elm loves growing in woodlands, hedgerows and field edges.

Known Hazards

There are no specific known hazards for this species

Could be Confused with…

You could confuse Elms with other species but all are edible. The leaves can look similar to that of Hazel (Corylus avellana) but look for the multi-stemmed, smooth silvery bark of Hazel that will also produce hazel nuts in the late summer/early autumn and won’t grow as tall. 

Identify Hazel

Edible Uses

We can use the leaves, fruit and bark for food. 

In times of famine it is known that the bark was used to make a floury meal and bread.

When the leaves are young and tender they can be a nice addition to a salad although they are quite bitter. You could also wilt them down as a green and add them to soups, stews and stir-fries.

The fruit or the Samaras are probably the tastiest part of the Elm tree. You’ll find them in a spring and the taste has been described as a sweet pea. They are lovely to nibble fresh and added to salads or as a garnish. You can also treat them like a veggie and add to other recipes. There is a seed inside each samara and you can process these and use them like a sunflower or pumpkin seed so would be great toasted.

Notes on Herbal Uses

Elm is astringent so has been used in herbal medicine for thousands of years. It is known to be a wonderful healing herb for wounds.

Extra notes from the Foragers

The wood from Elm is amazingly strong and durable whilst being water resistant. Elm has commonly been used for various wood-working from ship building to furniture making.

A little more info on woodworking with Elm

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Henbane Is a poisonous plant in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) it is native to temperate Europe, and naturalised in Great Britain and Ireland. It’s a shrubby biennial that grows up to 1m tall. The whole plant is very hairy, very sticky and produces a horrible smell.

Common Names

Black Henbane and Stinking Nightshade

Botanical Name

Hyoscyamus Niger

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom: Plantae

– Order: Solanales

– Family: Solanaceae

Physical Characteristics of Henbane

Leaves

The leaves are green, hairy, between 10 and 20 cm long with up to 3 lobes and they have a pointed tip. In the second year they grow in two rows on either side of the stem.

Flowers

The flowers are 2 to 3 cm across and are creamy-yellow and funnel-shaped with dark purplish centres.

Fruit

The fruit looks like  a small green tomato, about 10-20mm in diameter, which will turn black when ripe.

Habitat

Henbane often grows around long-inhabited areas and old fortifications. It is sometimes found on waste ground and prefers sandy soils.

It’s quite common in the south and east of England but rare elsewhere.

Known Hazards

All parts of the plant are poisonous.

High doses of henbane can cause delirium, seizures, irregular heartbeat, and a painful death.

Could be Confused with

Celebrity chef Antony Worrall Thompson accidentally recommended henbane as a “tasty addition to salads” in a magazine after mistaking it for Fen Hen, but Henbane looks unlike anything else really, it’s so distinctive, it definitely doesn’t look like Fat Hen.

Edible Uses

This plant is not edible and all parts are toxic to most animals but pigs are immune to the toxicity and are reported to enjoy the effects of the plant.

Notes on Herbal Uses

Henbane has a long and fascinating history but it should not be carelessly.

It contains chemicals, such as hyoscyamine and scopolamine, which may help to relax the muscles lining the digestive tract. The plant is also used to relieve muscle tremors and have a calming effect. If doses are too high, these chemicals can be poisonous.

Historically it was used in combination with other plants, as an anesthetic potion, and for its psychoactive properties in “magic brews”. These psychoactive properties include visual hallucinations and a sensation of flight.

Extra notes from the Foragers

Hamlet’s uncle Claudius poured a henbane tincture of the “cursed hebenon” into Hamlet’s father’s ear to murder him.

References:

More on toxins and herbal uses

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Cowberry is a brilliant little edible fruit that isn’t heavily harvested in the UK, however in the nordic countries this one is commercially harvested from the wild and can be found in lots of products and menus, it’s lovely in Jam, fresh or pickled.

Common Names

Lingonberry, Partridgeberry, Mountain Cranberry.

Botanical Name

Vaccinium vitis-idaea

Scientific Classification

– Kingdom:Plantae

– Order:Ericales

– Family:Ericaceae

Physical Characteristics if Cowberry

A low growing shrub, it’s often found growing around heather and bilberries – fantastic two-for-one on berries when you find it with the lovely bilberry!

Leaves

Cowberry leaves are evergreen, elliptical, and they grow alternately along the stem. They have a glossy texture, are dark green in colour, and have slightly toothed edges.

Flowers

The flowers are small and bell-shaped, typically pinkish-white. They form in clusters and have an urn-like appearance. Flowering during late spring to early summer.

Fruit  

The berries are small, round, and red and look like small cranberries. They ripen in late summer to autumn and are known for their slightly tart taste.

Habitat

Cowberry thrives in heathland areas, particularly in acidic soils and is common on moors in northern England.

Known Hazards

There are no significant hazards associated with this plant but some studies show that prolonged consumption or large amounts of cranberry, which are closely related, might increase the risk of kidney stone formation.

Could be Confused with

The closest look a like is Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) but this is also edible.

Edible Uses

The berries of cowberry are edible and can be used as cranberry alternatives. They can be eaten raw but are pretty sharp so much better cooked down with a little sugar or honey.

In Sweden and many Ikea stores, traditional Swedish meatballs are served with lingonberry jam alongside boiled or mashed potatoes and gravy sauce.

Notes on Herbal Uses

Cowberries have been dubbed a superfood due to their nutritional profile and antioxidant content. Though more research is needed, studies suggest that they may promote healthy gut bacteria, weight control, heart health, and blood sugar control among other benefits.

In traditional herbal medicine Cowberry leaf tea is used to treat kidney problems and urinary tract infections. Fruits and fruit are recommended to treat urinary tract infections, prostate and kidney problems, overweightness, hyperglycaemia, and high blood pressure.

Extra notes from the Foragers

In Russia and Northern Europe, there are several folktales explaining how Lingonberries became an evergreen species with life-giving nutrients. Legend has it that a swallow carried living water in its beak. The bird felt pride in being able to help others and planned on sprinkling the water on people to grant them immortality. When the swallow was flying one day, it was stung by a wasp. As a reaction to the pain, the bird opened its beak, spilling the water over three plants- Lingonberries, Cedar, and Pine trees.

References:

More on the hebral benefits of cowberry

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Spanakopita is a very traditional Greek dish with a wild twist with our Wild Spanakopita.

For mine, I’ve used nettle, dandelion, bistort, and common sorrel, but really anything green and good can be used. You could even make a coastal version with wild seaweeds, sea purslane, sea spinach and more….

I’ve also made my own vegan feta for this one, but shop-bought would be fine too.

What is Spanakopita?

Spanakopita is a Greek spinach and cheese pie that has been enjoyed since ancient times. It is typically made with layers of crispy phyllo dough and filled with a mixture of spinach and feta cheese, along with fresh herbs and aromatics. Spanakopita can be served as an appetizer or as a main course, and it is often found in coffee shops, bakeries, and restaurants in Greece. It is important to properly handle and thaw the phyllo dough, and each layer should be brushed with olive oil to achieve the desired texture. Spanakopita can also be made in advance and refrigerated before baking.

Ingredients for our Wild Spanakopita Pie

• 200g fresh greens
• 1 jar of sun-dried tomatoes
• 100g feta or vegan alternative
• 1 packet of pre-made filo pastry.

Ingredients for Vegan Feta

• 80g blanched unsalted almonds
• 190ml cold water
• 1 1/2 tbsp Agar
• 1 tsp salt
• ¼ tsp citric acid
• 1 tbsp nutritional yeast

Method to make the Feta.

In a small bowl pour boiling water over the almonds, cover and leave for a minimum of 8 hrs.

Drain the almonds, place them in a blender and add all of the other ingredients.

Process at the highest setting  until you have a smooth, creamy consistency.

Pour the  mixture into a saucepan and slowly heat, stirring continuously until it reaches 60’C. At this point the agar will be activated and should start to thicken the mixture. 

When thick, pour into a small tray and allow to cool, once cool, refrigerate and leave for a couple of hours to firm up.

The feta will be ready after around 2 hours and will keep for up to 2 days in an airtight container.

Method for the Wild Spanakopita Pie:

1. Roughly chop the greens and add to a large saucepan with a couple of spoons of water. Cook gently until soft and wilted, then drain, squeezing out any excess water. Allow to cool and then roughly chop again and add the chopped tomatoes and feta.
2. Carefully unfold the filo pastry and keep covered with a damp tea towel until needed.
3. Take one sheet of filo brush liberally with the oil from the tomatoes and place oil side down in a flan case or cake tin, allowing some of the pastry to hang over the sides.
4. Brush another sheet of filo with oil and place in the dish again allowing it to hang over the sides, repeat until you have a base around 5 sheets thick.
5. Spoon over the filling and pull the filo over to create a pie, some extra sheets can be scrunched up and added to the centre.
6. Brush well with oil, sprinkle over some sesame or nigella seeds if you have any and bake at 180’C for around 30 minutes.
7. Allow to cool slightly then remove from tin and slice into wedges, serve warm with a salad or enjoy cold with a glass of Retsina.

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Foraging is a fundamental behaviour observed in various organisms, including humans. It refers to the act of searching and obtaining food resources in the environment to meet one’s nutritional needs. This behaviour is not limited to a particular species or habitat; rather, it is a universal phenomenon that has existed since the dawn of life on Earth.

Foraging can take various forms depending on the organism and its ecological niche. In simpler organisms such as bacteria and protists, foraging involves the uptake of nutrients from the surrounding environment. In more complex organisms like animals, foraging includes a range of activities such as hunting, scavenging, and gathering. The ultimate goal of foraging is to find and acquire food resources that provide the necessary energy and nutrients for survival and reproduction.

The historical significance of foraging

Foraging has played a crucial role throughout human history, shaping our evolution, culture, and social structures. Before the advent of agriculture, humans relied solely on foraging for their sustenance. Our ancestors roamed the Earth, exploring different landscapes, and honing their foraging skills to gather wild plants, hunt animals, and fish from rivers and lakes.

The success of their foraging endeavours determined their survival and shaped their societies.

Foraging was not only a means of survival but also a way to acquire knowledge about the natural world. Ancient foragers developed an intimate understanding of their environment, learning to identify edible plants, track animals, and navigate through diverse landscapes. This knowledge was passed down through generations, forming the foundation of human cultural diversity and traditional ecological knowledge.

Read up more on the history of foraging here

Foraging in the animal kingdom

Foraging is not unique to humans; it is a widespread behaviour observed in the animal kingdom. Animals employ various strategies and tactics to optimize their foraging efficiency and increase their chances of finding food resources. Some animals are specialized foragers, adapting to specific habitats or food sources. For example, hummingbirds have long beaks and tongues to extract nectar from flowers, while woodpeckers use their strong beaks to excavate insects from tree bark.

Foraging behaviour in animals is often influenced by factors such as prey availability, competition, and predation risk. Animals have evolved different foraging strategies to deal with these challenges. Some species are solitary foragers, relying on their individual abilities to locate and capture food. Others engage in cooperative foraging, where individuals work together to maximize their foraging success. Foraging behaviour in animals is a dynamic and complex phenomenon, shaped by both genetic and environmental factors.

The evolutionary importance of foraging

Foraging is not merely a survival strategy; it has profound evolutionary implications. Natural selection favours individuals with efficient foraging abilities, as they are more likely to obtain the necessary resources for survival and reproduction. Over time, this leads to the evolution of traits and behaviours that enhance foraging efficiency.

Foraging behaviour has driven the evolution of various adaptations in animals. For example, predators have evolved specialized hunting techniques, such as camouflage or ambush tactics, to increase their chances of capturing prey. Herbivores, on the other hand, have developed adaptations like long necks or specialized teeth to access and process plant resources. These adaptations are the result of millions of years of evolutionary pressure, shaping the diversity of life on Earth.

Foraging behavior in humans

Although modern humans have largely shifted to agricultural and industrial food production, foraging behavior still persists in our species.

Foraging activities, such as hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants, continue to be practiced by certain communities around the world. These traditional foraging practices not only provide sustenance but also maintain cultural traditions and foster a deep connection with the natural world.

In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in foraging among urban populations. People are reconnecting with nature and exploring their local environments to discover wild edible plants and mushrooms. Foraging has become a recreational activity, allowing individuals to experience the thrill of finding and harvesting their own food. This renewed interest in foraging reflects a desire to reconnect with our ancestral roots and embrace sustainable food practices.

The impact of foraging on the environment

While foraging can be a sustainable and environmentally friendly way to obtain food, it can also have ecological consequences.

Overexploitation of wild resources can lead to the depletion of populations and disrupt ecological balance. For example, overfishing has led to the decline of numerous fish species and the collapse of marine ecosystems.

To ensure the sustainability of foraging practices, it is essential to adopt responsible harvesting techniques and adhere to conservation guidelines. This includes respecting catch limits, avoiding the collection of endangered or protected species, and promoting the regeneration of wild resources.

By adopting sustainable foraging practices, we can minimize the impact on the environment and preserve biodiversity for future generations.

Foraging in modern society

In today’s modern society, foraging has taken on new forms beyond gathering wild food. With the rise of urban agriculture and community gardens, individuals are reclaiming their food sovereignty and actively participating in the production of their own food. Foraging has extended beyond the wilderness and into our cities, with people growing their own fruits, vegetables, and herbs in urban spaces.

Furthermore, the concept of foraging has expanded to include the gathering of non-food resources. From mushrooms for medicinal purposes to plants for natural dyes and fibers, foraging has become a way to reconnect with nature and tap into its abundant resources. This shift towards a more sustainable and self-reliant lifestyle reflects an increasing awareness of the environmental and social impacts of industrial food production.

To help people begin their journey into foraging we’ve brought together our database of foraging and identification guides to help.

Online Learning

What’s The future of foraging?

As we navigate an increasingly uncertain future marked by environmental challenges and food security concerns, foraging may play a crucial role in shaping our relationship with the natural world. Foraging offers a sustainable alternative to industrial agriculture, promoting biodiversity conservation and reducing our ecological footprint. By reconnecting with nature and embracing the principles of foraging, we can forge a more harmonious and regenerative relationship with the planet.

The future of foraging lies not only in the revival of traditional practices but also in the integration of modern technologies and knowledge. From permaculture design to urban agriculture initiatives, there are countless opportunities to reimagine and reinvent our food systems. By combining ancestral wisdom with scientific advancements, we can create a future where foraging is not only a means of survival but also a way to thrive in harmony with nature.

Foraging is a timeless art that has shaped the course of evolution and human history. From the earliest hunter-gatherer societies to the present-day resurgence in urban foraging, this behaviour reflects our innate connection with the natural world. By understanding the definition and evolutionary importance of foraging, we can appreciate its role in shaping our past, present, and future. Let us embrace the art of foraging and embark on a journey of sustainable living, rooted in our ancestral wisdom and the wonders of nature.

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